Abstract

This study was designed to investigate “Societal attitude towards persons with albinism (red skin) in the Buea municipality”. The objectives that were used for the study were; to find out the effect of myths and stigmatization on person with red skin, to examine the effect of teasing and name calling on person with red skin and to explore the extent of prejudice and discrimination on person with red skin. The sample size was 50 albino randomly selected from the streets of Buea.

The questionnaire was used to obtain information from correspondents and data were analyzed using percentages and frequencies. The following results were obtained;   myths and stigmatization on person with red skin affect them negatively, teasing and name calling on person with red skin affect them negatively and prejudice and discrimination on person with red skin negatively.

Based on the above result, the following recommendations were obtained; Parents should help their children deal with the hurtful comments by encouraging them to share their experiences and their feelings about them. Parents can also help their children by exploring new and positive ways to respond to the teasing and name-calling in the future and by practicing through role playing. Schools should teach kids that hurtful behavior towards people with any sort of difference is a form of discrimination.

A series of lessons on disabilities can provide information about albinism in the context of a variety of disabilities and other differences. Videos, puppet shows such as Kids on the Block, and other materials can teach this lesson on a child’s level.

CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Background to the study

Historically, Famous people with albinism include historical figures such as Oxford don William Archibald Spooner; actor-comedian Victor Varnado; musicians such as Johnny and Edgar Winter, Salif Keita, Winston “Yellowman” Foster, Brother Ali, Sivuca, Hermeto Pascoal, Willie “Piano Red” Perryman, Kalash Criminel; actor-rapper Krondon, and fashion models Connie Chiu, Ryan “La Burnt” Byrne and Shaun Ross (Allen, 2011).

Emperor Seinei of Japan is thought to have been an albino because he was said to have been born with white hair. It is suggested that the early genus Homo (humans in the broader sense) started to evolve in East Africa around 3 million years ago (Allen, 2011).The dramatic phenotypic change from the ape-like Australopithecus to early Homo is hypothesized to have involved the extreme loss of body hair – except for areas most exposed to UV radiation, such as the head – to allow for more efficient thermoregulation in the early hunter-gatherers.

The skin that would have been exposed upon general body hair loss in these early proto-humans would have most likely been non-pigmented, reflecting the pale skin underlying the hair of our chimpanzee relatives. A positive advantage would have been conferred to early hominids inhabiting the African continent that were capable of producing darker skin – those who first expressed the eumelanin-producing MC1R allele – which protected them from harmful epithelium-damaging ultraviolet rays. Over time, the advantage conferred to those with darker skin may have led to the prevalence of darker skin on the continent.

The positive advantage, however, would have had to be strong enough so as to produce a significantly higher reproductive fitness in those who produced more melanin. The cause of a selective pressure strong enough to cause this shift is an area of much debate. Some hypotheses include the existence of significantly lower reproductive fitness in people with less melanin due to lethal skin cancer, lethal kidney disease due to excess vitamin D formation in the skin of people with less melanin, or simply natural selection due to mate preference and sexual selection (Aquaron  and L. Kamdem. 2009).

International Albinism Awareness Day was established after a motion was accepted on 18 December 2014 by the United Nations General Assembly, proclaiming that as of 2015, 13 June would be known as International Albinism Awareness Day. This was followed by a mandate created by the United Nations Human Rights Council that appointed Ms. Ikponwosa Ero, who is from Nigeria, as the very first Independent Expert on the enjoyment of human rights by persons with albinism (Kaplan, J.; De Domenico, I.; Ward, D. M., 2008).

Although Mendel experimented with varieties of peas, his laws have been shown to apply to the inheritance of many kinds of characters in almost all organisms. In 1902 Mendelian inheritance was demonstrated in poultry (by English geneticists William Bateson and Reginald Punnett) and in mice. The following year, albinism became the first human trait shown to be a Mendelian recessive, with pigmented skin the corresponding dominant.

In 1902 and 1909, English physician Sir Archibald Garrod initiated the analysis of inborn errors of metabolism in humans in terms of biochemical genetics. Alkaptonuria, inherited as a recessive, is characterized by excretion in the urine of large amounts of the substance called alkapton, or homogentisic acid, which renders the urine black on exposure to air. In normal (i.e., nonalkaptonuric) persons the homogentisic acid is changed to acetoacetic acid, the reaction being facilitated by an enzyme, homogentisic acid oxidase. Garrod advanced the hypothesis that this enzyme is absent or inactive in homozygous carriers of the defective recessive alkaptonuria gene; hence, the homogentisic acid accumulates and is excreted in the urine. Mendelian inheritance of numerous traits in humans has been studied since then.

In analyzing Mendelian inheritance, it should be borne in mind that an organism is not an aggregate of independent traits, each determined by one gene. A “trait” is really an abstraction, a term of convenience in description. One gene may affect many traits (a condition termed pleiotropic). The white gene in Drosophila flies is pleiotropic; it affects the colour of the eyes and of the testicular envelope in the males, the fecundity and the shape of the spermatheca in the females, and the longevity of both sexes. In humans many diseases caused by a single defective gene will have a variety of symptoms, all pleiotropic manifestations of the gene. The operation of Mendelian inheritance is frequently more complex than in the case of the traits recorded by Mendel. In the first place, clear-cut dominance and recessiveness are by no means always found.

When red- and white-flowered varieties of four-o’clock plants or snapdragons are crossed, for example, the F1 hybrids have flowers of intermediate pink or rose colour, a situation that seems more explicable by the blending notion of inheritance than by Mendelian concepts. That the inheritance of flower colour is indeed due to Mendelian mechanisms becomes apparent when the F1 hybrids are allowed to cross, yielding an F2 generation of red-, pink-, and white-flowered plants in a ratio of 1 red : 2 pink : 1 white. Obviously the hereditary information for the production of red and white flowers had not been blended away in the first hybrid generation, as flowers of these colours were produced in the second generation of hybrids (Ward, D. M., 2008)

A notion that was widespread among pioneer biologists in the 18th century was that the fetus, and hence the adult organism that develops from it, is performed in the sex cells. Some early microscopists even imagined that they saw a tiny homunculus, a diminutive human figure, encased in the human spermatozoon, (Tietz, W, 1963). The development of the individual from the sex cells appeared deceptively simple: it was merely an increase in the size and growth of what was already present in the sex cells. The antithesis of the early preformation theories was theories of epigenesis, which claimed that the sex cells were structure less jelly and contained nothing at all in the way of rudiments of future organisms, (Tietz, W, 1963).

The naive early versions of preformation and epigenesis had to be given up when embryologists showed that the embryo develops by a series of complex but orderly and gradual transformations. Darwin’s “Provisional Hypothesis of Pangenesis” was distinctly preformistic; Weismann’s theory of determinants in the germ plasm, as well as the early ideas about the relations between genes and traits, also tended toward preformism, (Tietz, W, 1963).

Attitudes on albinism can have tremendous impact on people with albinism though different people with albinism are affected differently depending on age, social standard and status (UNICEF, 2011).  According to Mswela (2016), although albinism is common and affects several people in Africa, it still remains deeply misunderstood. From how people view albinism in Africa, babies born with Albinism are vulnerable in multiple ways; are vulnerable as children, as visually impaired, as socially ostracized, isolated and excluded.

And potential victims of witchcraft- related violence targeted for their body parts for use in “lucky” charms thought to bring good fortune (Taylor et al., 2019).In Cameroon, the bakeries and a Ewondo’s have the largest population of person with albinism. In most loyal communities, people with albinism were considered as outcast, curse people and the labelled up till date as ‘Mukala’. Most often albinos were used to appease the god of the mountain (fako) which they call “Epassa moto”.

In the 1920s, albinos in Cameroon were highly persecuted due to dumb superstitious belief. It was believed that. In the Southwest region, when a normal person eats or dying with person suffering from albinism, he or she would be curse with having a lineage of albinos. The Ewondos labelled albinos as witches and Wizards and as such they were used to appease the water god during the “SAWA” festival (Noah, 2007).

(Noah, 2007) Observe that due to lack of pigmentation of persons with albinism. People of Cameroon associate them with the secret world of the dead. Hence they are referred to as “Meffeu” Meaning dead. Other titles use include. ‘fogtab gab’ white or chicken or ‘bwongou’ (strange person) (Noah, 2007). The reason behind these terms is to portray persons with albinism as not humans, implying that society does not accord them the right they should enjoy just like any other Community member (Noah, 2007). This has resulted in the blunt and abuses and killing of persons with albinism.

Nowadays, the killings of persons with albinism have been eradicated thanks to the birth of albino association in the world like the World Association for the Defense of the interest and solidarity of albinos (AMODISA) and the Tanzania Albino society (TAS) which is fighting for the rights of albinos in the world today and Cameroon inclusive. Despite this legislation in place, albinos are still victims of prejudice and stigmatization (Noah, 2007).  Kakmeni Wembou Raphael, the head of the Cameroon Association for the Promotion of Albino (CAPA), told Anadolu Agency that albino children grow up in fear as discrimination is very common in the country.

People do not know about albinism in the Central African country, Raphael noted, saying that due to superstitious beliefs related to fortune and health, albinos are kidnapped and their organs are cut off. He went on to say that the society in Cameroon considers albinos ghosts, wizards, charlatans, or the cursed ones.”Albinos’ limbs are sold for $15 to $30 on the black market,” Raphael said.

Theoretically, this study will be guided by the psychological theory of Erik Erikson and Abraham Maslow, self actualization theory. According to Erik Erikson, in his psychological theory, each person experienced psychological crises, which helped to define his or her growth and personality. Each state of life has its own psychological task, each of which is defined by conflicts involving on the individual relationship.

With their social environment. Erikson posits that the social environment combined with biological mutation provide each individual with a set of crises. That must be resolved. The individual is provided with a sensitive, in which two negotiate successfully each crisis before a new crisis is presented. According to Maslow, in his hierarchical of need theory, he brought about the issue of self-actualization and that each and every individual has a potential to grow and be actualized.

Conceptually, Albinism is a congenital condition characterized in humans by the partial or complete absence of pigment in the skin, hair and eyes. Albinism is associated with a number of vision defects, such as photophobia, nystagmus, and amblyopia. Lack of skin pigmentation makes for more susceptibility to sunburn and skin cancers. In rare cases such as Chédiak–Higashi syndrome, albinism may be associated with deficiencies in the transportation of melanin granules. This also affects essential granules present in immune cells leading to increased susceptibility to infection  (Tietz, W, 1963).

The term “albino” is commonly used in everyday conversations and in different languages including English. Many individuals living with albinism are comfortable with the word and prefer being called an albino. However, the word “albino” can be used in hurtful ways. Referring to a person with regards to their condition is dehumanizing. This term “person with albinism” and “people with albinism” put the person first and the condition second. Other ways of dehumanizing include name calling and teasing which are other ways in which language is used. It is often common for children to face teasing during their schooling years (Gaigher, Lund & Makuya, 2002). There are numerous world held misconceptions about albinism, ranging from the idea that people with albinism have magical powers which makes it easier for people to hold the belief that they are retarded (Bucaro, 2012) .

Albinism is a rare, non-contagious, genetically inherited condition characterized by a lack of pigmentation in the hair, skin and eyes. It occurs regardless of ethnicity or gender. Both parents must carry the gene for it to be passed on, even if neither have albinism themselves. Albinism encompasses a group of inherited disorders of melanin synthesis, the pigment that protects the skin from ultraviolet (UV) light from the sun. Persons with albinism (PWA) may lack pigmentation in the skin, eyes and hair which is referred to as oculocutaneous albinism (Nasr, 2010). Oculocutaneous albinism (OCA) may cause visual impairment due to hypopigmentation of the iris and retina, hypoplastic fovea, hyperopia, strabismus, photophobia, loss of stereoscopic.

Humans with albinism often face social and cultural challenges (even threats), as the condition is often a source of ridicule, discrimination, or even fear and violence (Nasr, 2010). It is especially socially stigmatized in many African societies. A study conducted in Nigeria on albino children stated that “they experienced alienation, avoided social interactions and were less emotionally stable. Furthermore, affected individuals were less likely to complete schooling, find employment, and find partners”. Many cultures around the world have developed beliefs regarding people with albinism.

Theoretically, three theory will be review which they include: Vrey and self-actualization theory (1979) Theories of attitudes and beliefs and Social learning theory and acquisition of attitudes.In very theory of self-actualization, Very (1979) defines self-actualization as a person’s deliberate attempts to realize all the talent potential of self.

This includes every terrain of physical skills, intellectual ability, emotional experience, and moral awareness, enabling an individual to acquire and actualize the human self. Vrey suggests that an individual or a child who is selfactualized should reject negative self-concept and self-perception. Unlike adults, selfactualization in children focuses on the development of positive self-concept, since this will enable self-acceptance that releases psychological vitality to grow towards the metaneeds.

The second theory under study is :Theories of attitudes and beliefs. Here An attitude can be described as learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object. Attitude is typically viewed as a latent or underlying variable that is assumed to influence behaviour. It strongly influences social thought, the way in which people think about and process social information. And the last theory is; Social learning theory and acquisition of attitudes. Social learning theory postulates that attitudes are acquired from other people through the process of social learning. This means that people’s views are acquired in situations where they interact with others or merely observe their behaviors. The following are types of learning people acquire in their environment:

Statement of the problem

Albinos are human being like any other normal humans and should have equality in every aspect of life. However, in Cameroon and other countries, this is not the case as some of them are facing various psychological challenges that include stigmatization and discrimination resulting in social exclusion and low self-esteem.

According to Land and Kagore (2005). Stigmatization and discrimination among persons with albinism has also resulted in emotions that include anger, depression, and guilty conscience. Faced with these challenges, persons with albinism use various coping strategies that range from seeking social support and releasing. Emotional tension through crying persons with albinism may tend to avoid social situation as a negative coping strategy of stigma and discrimination. It is against this background that the studies seek to investigate the societal attitudes towards person with red skin (albino).

Research objectives

Main research objective

To investigate societal attitudes toward person with red skin (Albinism).

Specific objectives

Specifically, the study aims at.

1. To find out the effect of myths and stigmatization on person with red skin.
2. To examine the effect of teasing and name calling on person with red skin.
3. To explore the extent of prejudice and discrimination on person with red skin.

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