Abstract

The forest communities surrounding the Mount Cameroon Region (MCR) of the south west region are endowed with Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs). These NTFPs include all services and the biological materials, other than timber extracted from forests for human use. Forest communities around the Mount Cameroon rely on these products to sustain their livelihoods and traditions thus, they exploit and market these products.  The main objective of this study is to examine the exploitation and marketing of non-timber forest products in the Mount Cameroon area. Data for this study consists of both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources of data collection include interviews, on-the-spot observation and the use of camera, Global position system. Secondary sources of data collection include literature from published and unpublished sources such as articles, books, journals, reports of research, organizations and theses. Stratified random sampling technique was used in the administration of the questionnaires. The forty-one (41) communities in MCR were divided into four strata. A total of ten (10) communities were then selected randomly, taking at least one community from each stratum. The data was treated through inferential and non-inferential statistics and this paved the way for the testing of the hypotheses. Results revealed that the MCR is endowed with rich biodiversity that have been exploited and marketed unsustainably. Poor harvesting practices combined with logging and forest conversion, critically threaten NTFP stocks in the remaining forests. Some recommendations were proposed and the most prominent is that management agreements between forest users  and  forest  owners should be developed and implemented for potentially high-value plant products,  addressing  intellectual  property  rights,  land tenure  and  resource  access which will aid in the attainment of the Sustainable development Goals and the emergence of Cameroon. Also a model was proposed which is a pathway for the sustainable management of NTFPs and is highly recommended to be used by stakeholders in charge of NTFPs in these communities and the Government of Cameroon.

CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Introduction

Globally, the livelihood of about 800 million people living in or near tropical forests and savannahs is directly affected by the wide range of products and services provided by the forest (Smith et al., 2017).  A large proportion of the population makes use of forests and the resources from them and these resources constitute vital components of local livelihoods, which probably prevent people from slipping into deeper poverty (Shacketon et al., 2007). Forests provide access to basic resources and generate income through the provision of timber and Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) thereby contributing to livelihoods (Smith et al., 2017). The forest products considered here are edible plant and animal products, medicinal products, and non-edible plant and animal products (NTFPs). According to Smith et al. (2017), incomes derived from the forest can reduce the vulnerability of households and contribute greatly by providing a source of savings, asset building, reducing poverty levels and improving wellbeing.

Current socio-economic pressures have the potential to influence the long-term sustainability of NTFP gathering in the forest. Shifts in land use and management may diminish NTFP habitat and affect NFTP availability (Baumflek et al, 2010). Indiscriminate exploitation of forest resources in the Mount Cameroon Region (MCR) has cost some dwellers dearly as they are now experiencing marked reduction of wildlife, forest cover, soil fertility and most importantly water supply, which is a key to life. Peri-urban markets not only supply consumers but are also Markets of NTFPs in the Humid Forest Zone of Cameroon (Laird et al., 2011). Schaafsma et al (2014), indicated that conservation initiatives need to be coordinated with poverty and energy policies since most households in the lowest income quartiles in the Eastern Arc Mountain area depended most on these NTFPs. Also, insights on the benefits obtained from the forests by local communities can be gotten from the comprehension of the spatial distribution of the quantity and economic value of  NTFP collection and this can enlighten decisions about the selection of forested areas that are eligible for conservation and enforcement of regulations (Schaafsma et al; 2014).

The main objective of this study was to examine the exploitation and marketing of NTFPs, by estimating the quantity of NTFPs marketed, in a selection of key markets and by comparing traders’ marketing margins for various NTFPs and its effects on human livelihood and forest resources in the Mount Cameroon Region. This thesis also evaluated the role of NTFPs farming as a method of environment conservation. Also, recommendations for conserving and enhancing the value of NTFPs and suggestions for further research were made.

This chapter gives a general overview of this study. It also explains the term Non-timber forest products (NTFPs), its importance and its evolution, and contains research questions, statement of problem, objectives, hypothesis as well as the background of the study area.

1.1 Background of the study

Civilizations since time immemorial have depended on forests for food, shelter, fuel, clothing and medicine. Nowadays more than 1.6 billion people rely directly on forests for part of their livelihood (Mayers and Vermeulen, 2002). Poor people and communities from all over the world have demonstrated that Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are tools against poverty by initiating various types of businesses (Ingram, 2004). Many people who live within or adjacent to forests depend upon forest products to a high degree  for  subsistence  and  income  (De  Wasseige et al, 2009; FAO, 2009).The majority of inhabitants practice  small-scale  slash-and-burn  shifting  agriculture  for  subsistence,  a  farming practice which uses the forest as a land reserve for expansion (Sadio, 2009) thus, they depend on forest services, such as fertile soils (Gibbs et al, 2010).

Many cultural traditions have evolved around the availability of NTFPs as sources of food, medicines, spiritual artefacts and fibre for thousands of years. For example, in China, several thousand plant species form the basis for the traditional Chinese medicine (Kleinn et al, 2006). Therefore, the promotion of the NTFP industry will aid preserve the traditional and cultural identities of the indigenous people of the (Duchesne, 2003). According to Akanni (2013), the farming of Non-timber forest products provides enormous benefits to rural dwellers and is a way to promote the NTFP industry. People, the products of forests and poverty have a complex link. In order to thrive, these people and those who wish to emulate the NTFPs need to be supported in many ways. With proper planning and adequate research, the NTFP industry has the potential to become a global tool against poverty. Its growth and success are contingent on innovation in many academic disciplines as well as on the recognition of its potential at the global level (Duchesne, 2003). There is growing acceptance of Non- timber forest products (NTFPs) as a global means to generate economic stability for small entrepreneurs, young and old, men or women alike (Ros-Tonen et al., 2003).

NTFPs include all botanical commodities, woody or not, generated from the forests (Duchesne et al., 2000). They include roots, fruits, medicinal plants, resins and essential oils, and fibres such as bamboos, rattans, and other palms used for weaving and structural applications (Belcher, 2005; Melese, 2016). Only few products, like rattan and bamboo, have a huge industry behind them, and have correspondingly been researched intensively (Kleinn et al., 2006).While timber products include those which are derived from large scale industrial forestry enterprises (concessions), small-scale value-added products include furnishings, carvings. Thus, promoting the development of NTFPs can improve livelihoods of communities in forest areas and encourage the conservation of forests and their precious natural resources. A forest is an ecosystem or assemblage of ecosystems dominated by a wide number of resources alongside trees and other woody vegetation. The living parts of a forest include trees, shrubs, vines, grasses and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants, mosses, algae, fungi, insects, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and microorganisms living on the plants and animals and in the soil. These interact with one another and with the non-living part of the environment such as the soil, water, and minerals, to make up what we know as a forest. Historically, humans have modified natural ecosystems to favour those species that yield direct benefits such as agricultural commodities, generally overlooking the unseen but essential ecosystem services that if lost, are expensive and sometimes impossible to replace (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (DEWHA), 2009). Ecosystem services are the benefits provided to humans through the transformation of resources or environmental assets, including land, water, vegetation and atmosphere into a flow of essential goods and services like clean air, water, and food (DEWHA, 2009).

NTFPs have attracted considerable attention as a component of sustainable development initiatives in recent years due to their ability to support and improve rural livelihoods while contributing to environmental objectives, including biodiversity conservation. The eco-friendly and people-friendly connotations associated with NTFPs have supported some products to fill in a niche in international trade; the small, but rapidly growing fair-trade market (Kleinn et al.,2006).

In Africa, it has been estimated that over two thirds of the continent’s 600 million people rely on forest products, either in the form of subsistence uses or as cash income derived from a wide range of timber and NTFPs (Arnold, 2001; CIFOR, 2005; Kaimowitz, 2003; Sunderlin et al., 2005). The national trade in medicinal plants in South Africa has been estimated to be worth between US$ 6 and 9 million per year. About 7.5 million plant units (of over 600 species) are sold annually in Natal. A total of 39 medicinal species have been exploited to the extent that they are now endangered and one species is already extinct (Tindel, 2006). The national market in medicinal plants is believed to be more important than the export market since the vast majority of Africans prefer traditional healers. It is anticipated that the income contribution of NTFPs, and the role they play in providing a safety-net, will remain important both to the poorest rural households who may not be able to access new economic opportunities, and to those who have sought external employment options in a changeable economic climate. However, there is a need to fall back on NTFP income dependency. NTFP harvesters are typically people who live at the margins of economic and political systems (Shanley et al., 2002). The CIFOR global comparative study characterised the NTFP case studies in Africa as predominantly part of a ‘coping strategy’ (Sunderland et al.,2004). Recent research in Guinea indicates that villagers derive up to 25-30% of their incomes from collecting and selling forest products (PROFOR, 2007). Townson, (1995) found that most people in their study relied on NTFP-based activities for only part of their income and that only 10% relied solely on NTFP-activities. Economic and demographic projections for most African countries offer little ground for change. A shift from using traditional medicines which are NTFP will only occur with socio-economic and cultural change, as well as economic growth (Tindel, 2006).

NTFP extraction seems to be the domain of the poor. Location and access to infrastructure is a determining factor in livelihood choices, with NTFPs making an important contribution to rural livelihoods (Malleson et al., 2014). The seasonality of different income streams is closely linked to the agricultural cycle and labour availability, and many NTFP-related activities are carried out during the rainy season, between crop planting and harvesting, and at other lack times during the farming year (Malleson et al., 2014). In Cameroon and Nigeria, bush mango income shows great seasonal variation as the most common species of bush mango (Irvingiaga bonensis)bear fruits during the rainy season and much of the processing and marketing is carried out during the slack farming period or when the need for cash is more acute, such as at the start of the school year (Malleson, 2000; Sunderland et al., 2003).

Cameroon’s tropical forests cover almost 40 % of the country and provide an estimated eight million rural people with important traditional products including food, medicines, fuel and construction material (Norrington-Davies, 2011). Formal forestry operations in Cameroon employ between 45,000 and 70,000 people and account for more than 10 % of the country’s GDP (Alemagi, 2011). The country has exceptionally high biological diversity and high levels of endemism. The geographical distribution of many endemic forest species is very narrow compared with that of the drier biomes. Most endemic taxa are concentrated around Mount Cameroon and the other highland areas (Taylor, 2015). Mount Cameroon support a number of forest and wildlife habitats that host a significant number of globally threatened and endemic species. It also provides an important watershed function and a wide range of ecosystem services locally, nationally and globally. Despite the uniqueness of this ecosystem, there are still a number of activities that threatened the integrity of these protected areas and their connectivity. They include uncontrolled land occupation, large scale agro-industrial activities, illegal timber and NTFP exploitation, poaching, uncontrolled wild fires (MINFOF, 2014).  An example of the unsustainable exploitation of the accessible mountain forests, was logging of the extensive forests at the base of Mt Cameroon just before and after Independence (1960). Now, the industrial logging companies are no longer interested in the remaining forests around Mt Cameroon because all the important timber is gone, yet villagers still exploit what is left, harvesting wood for local furniture and building materials (Anong, 2006). NTFPs are a good source of income; Mount Cameroon Prunus Management Group indicated that 450francs CFA is realized from the sale of one kilogram of Prunus africana bark (Awono, 2010) while the collectors earn 150 francs cfa per kilogram of collected Prunus africana. From the said sale, 50percent goes to fund community development projects in the various villages (Tieguhong and Ndoye, 2006).

A good number of the villages surrounding Mount  Cameroon  are  located  on  high  lands,  which  is  conducive  to  the regeneration of the different species of both flora and fauna. This is particularly the case in the village of Mapanja and Bokwaongo where the domestication of Prunus africana is carried out by an association of women that are old harvesters. Prunus africana seedlings have been moved from their site of origin and replanted near farms and villages by these women in order to fit fully in the exploitation of Non Timber Forest Product (Abanda and Nzino,2014). This initiative has as benefit, the reduction of the hardship during exploitation from areas located at far distances and significant altitudes that render exploitation very tedious. The harvesting and consumption of plant products from natural forests is known to account for a large proportion of the livelihood of people living close to such habitats(Abanda and Nzino,2014). Three new threatened tree species have been identified in the Mount Cameroon area by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature(IUCN). The species are Cola suboppositifolia, Oxanthus montanus and Draceana bueana. They were found in the Buassa and Sanje forests in Mount Cameroon in March 2014 by a team of Foresters from the Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF) (Asa’a and Shancho, 2014). They market these products to generate income for their other needs thus alleviating poverty. NTFPs produced in tropical forests can be grouped into four categories (table 1.1),  fruits and seeds, with plant parts harvested mainly for fleshy fruit bodies, nuts and oil seed; plant exudates such as latex, resin and floral nectar; vegetative structures such as apical buds, bulbs, leaves, stems, barks and roots, and  small stems, poles and sticks harvested for housing, fencing, fuel wood, craft and furniture materials like carvings, stools and lastly bush meat which is a good source of protein.

1.2 Statement of problem

Most people depend primarily on natural resources like timber/wood, Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs), wildlife and farming for their livelihood. This strong dependence on natural resources both at the local and national levels has in recent times significantly increased the pressure on these resources (Perez et al., 1995; MINFOF, 2014). The problem here is that the NTFPs of the Mount Cameroon Region, are over exploited hence it disrupts the forest ecosystem which affects biodiversity with little or no sustainable practices. Also there is a limitation in the knowledge of its marketing and the functioning of local markets.

Forest protection and conservation is highly dependent on the benefits obtained from the forest by adjacent communities (Maina, 2016).There is a complex interrelationship between the components of the ecosystem and this reciprocal relationship makes the survival of some components greatly dependent on the performance of others. Consequently, an effect on some components causes direct or indirect impacts on others. Plant species such as the Prunus africana have become important to the communities of Bova, Bakingili and Bokwaongo because of its medicinal value. Its exploitation has a direct effect on the availability of these species and an indirect effect on its inability to sequestrate carbonoxide gas ( Ruiz et al., 1996).

The growing demand for NTFPs will ultimately intensify the pressure on wild populations. As with any wild plant or animal, if harvesting and mortality exceed annual production, the resource will progressively be depleted and become locally extinct (Cunningham, 2002).The lure of money from sales is causing the inhabitants of this region to harvest the species unsustainably. A glaring example is the local and international demand for Zingana from the Mount Cameroon Region which has become alarming. Sources reveal that in the last two to three years, a cubic metre of Bubinga sold at a whopping 1.5million FCFA in Douala. This brisk business almost led to the extinction of the species in the Mt. Cameroon area (Asa’a and Shancho, 2014).The harvesting practices that partially or wholly strip barks from live trees such as pygeum (Prunus africana) and umemezi (Cassipourea flanaganii) expose them to ring-barking and stem boring insects and this can result in considerable postharvest tree mortality. Likewise the use of wood products for carving, chew sticks or fuel wood also results in the immediate death of the individual organism (Sunderland and Ousseynou, 2004).

According to the Cameroon government, despite numerous efforts to implement conservation and livelihoods improvement measures in this fragile ecological zone, the biodiversity of the area remains threatened due to over exploitation amongst others (Government of Cameroon (GoC), 2005). In addition, the role of the local people in management and decision making has been greatly undermined (Nkengfack, 2011). The problem might be with the implementation of the current law regulating management and use of forest resources. Some illegal activities are still reported in this area and this might be a sign of the negative attitude of local people towards conservation. The Mount Cameroon Region harbours different species of NTFPs which are endangered, like the forest elephant in the region.

Quality wise, the products brought in the market by craftsperson, with the exception of some operators in the honey industry,  are  not  competitive  on  the  international  market  because  there  are no standards to certify the products (MINOF, 2017). In the same vein, industries that are developing in other spheres such as bamboo/rattan are witnessing lack of adequate technological capacities.

With wide spread poverty effects and expanding population in this Region, implies that, there are increasingly more people dependent on the forest for survival and if nothing is done, the trend of NTFPs loss is only going to worsen. As these NTFPs continue to be exploited unsustainably, it is also gradually becoming a challenge to resource managers and the world at large. Therefore, the aim of this research is to examine the exploitation and marketing of non-timber forest products in the Mount Cameroon Region and its role to poverty alleviation and to examine the environmental implication of NTFPs exploitation and the role of farming NTFPs as a method of environmental conservation.

1.3 Research questions

This study will be guided by the following research questions:

1. What is the role of NTFPs in poverty alleviation and in sustaining livelihoods in the Mount Cameroon Region?
2. What are the environmental implications of NTFPs exploitation?
3. What are the constraints and opportunities in exploiting and marketing NTFPs?
4. Are there solutions to the indiscriminate exploitation of NTFPs in the Mount Cameroon Region?